Philosophical & Religious Principles of Jainism

It is considered that as distinct from the Vedic religion, Jainism is not an 'apaurusheya' (man-made) religion, i.e. it does not possess divine origin. This teaching was created by persons, each one of them is known as a Jeena, i.e. a conqueror (removing all the obstacles on way to salvation) or a Tirthankar-boatman across the current (of existence).

The basic principles of Jainism are the following.

1. Initially every human soul is invested with an envelope of materialistic particles called karmas, attaching it to impure earthly tasks.

2. Every human being must strive for liberation from this dependence and for achieving perfection of the condition of soul, in which it acquires four new qualities, unlimited force and unlimited bliss.

3. A human being must hold the material envelope under control of his soul, since only after complete mastery over the envelopes binding force, the soul can reach perfection.

4. A human being can reach perfection by his own efforts. Nobody can help him on this path. Everyone carries full measure of responsibility for all that he does. This last principle objectively rejects God.

The basis of Jain philosophy is faith in the objective existence of two categories (conceptions)-Jiva (living) and Ajiva (without living), which are uninterrupted interaction, giving rise to the phenomenon of life.

A human being can accomplish the feat of stopping this interaction and of liberating itself gradually from the attractions of all that relates to Ajiva and can accomplish the feat of securing the condition of Moksha-complete freedom, salvation.

For securing Moksha, every Jain must efficiently master the thought of the seven so-called Tattvas : (1) living (spirit), (2) non-living (matter), (3) penetration of matter into the soul, (4) connection of the matter with the soul, (5) mastering of this penetration by the soul, (6) liberation from the influence of matter, and (7) moksha.

Jiva (we will translate it as soul) is wholly eternal and intransient, but it consists of innumerable multitudes of individual souls, invested in most varied material envelopes or bodies. These may be bodies of people, animals, insects and even plants. There are categories of beings manifesting only one sense, one aspect of soul-touch. These are immovable-'Sthavara' (these are plantations, air, water, fire, land). There are beings-'Trasa' i.e. movable. Amongst them, there are those who have two senses: touch and taste (for example, worms), and who have three senses: touch, taste, and smell (beetle), who have four senses: touch, taste, smell and sight (bee), who have five senses-the above four and hearing (peoples, animals and birds).

In as much as the existence of soul in every living being is acknowledged, the doctrine of ahimsa i.e. nonviolence, absence of injury to life is adhered to in the strictest possible manner.

This doctrine prescribed absence of injury even to plants and those beings, which possess only one sense. But in as much as such a prescription is not compatible, say, with agricultural practice, Jain preachers introduce the explanation that only conscious harm to living beings is strictly prohibited but harm which is caused by necessity is not.

Five conceptions form a part of the category of Ajiva i.e. non-living. Pudgala-matter, Dharma-means, environments, stimulating movement or action, Adharma-means or environment, stimulating absence of movement (for example, land), Akasha-expanse and Kala (time).

All these are primordial and in their essense are unchangeable. Only conditions can change, in which they manifest themselves.

Consciousness is originally natural to each soul but the material karmas, giving birth to various barriers disturb the finding of real knowledge.

Cognition can be secured by means of feelings, and mind and by means of soul, which has liberated itself from karma (this is the highest form of cognition).

The soul, having secured the condition of perfection-kevala can cognize the real nature of all things; it can accept everything relatively and conditionally in the remaining steps of path to salvation.

Every affirmation is not absolute but relative and this was given rise by the objective condition of each real existing substance, since with the substance there are two basic groups of indications: unchanged and changing (accidental). all indications exist in reality.

Changing indications are connected with uninterrupted cycle of birth and destruction, while the unchanged indications are the cause of uninterrupted existence of real substance.

All substances, with the exception of time (kala) possess extent in space. Soul is also related to the category of substances, having extent in space, but with the reservation that it exists in it but does not fill it and can be combined simultaneously with other substances (let us say with other soul).

Individual qualities, inherent in every human soul are conditioned by the influence of all karmas on the souls of preceding generations. Dependence on karmas engenders passions, which should be mastered. On this path the competence of the 24 preachers (Jinas)-who are called Tirthankars-boatmen across the current (existence or passions), can be helped. they are called Tirthankars because of this only.

Correct faith, correct cognition and correct conduct are known, because of this, as three jewels (triratna) in the ethics of the Jains.

All that exists was eternal and would remain eternal. There was no creator of the universe, similar to Hindu gods Brahma and Prajapati.

Time is divided in three eras-past, present and future. In every era lived 24 Tirthankars. In the Jain scripture 'Kalpasutra' and in the glossary ' Abhidhana Chintamani' composed in the twelfth century by the Jain acharya. Hemchandra and in a number of other works, the life and selflessness of these Tirthankars and the miracles, which they performed, are described. The continuity of their life is measured in units, called 'sea of years', which is equal to one trillion units of time, called 'palya' and they are equal to the time, necessary for ravaging a big cave, filled with trimmed hair, taking out one hair at a time in a century. And only about the last but on Tirthankar (Parshva), it is said that he became an ascetic at the age of 30 and reached perfection at the age of 70. These realistic figures testify according to our opinion to the fact of his existence as a historical person whose memory preserved towards the time of the blossoming of Jainism and creation of its canon.

Each era consists of six epochs, called 'ara'. In the course of these epochs, humanity passes the path of great happiness to great grief and again to great happiness. In the first five aras, people become huge and strong and live for long. But by the sixth ara, growth of people decreases to one eubit and the continuity of life reaches up to 16 years. In the follwoing six aras everything passes in the reverse order.

In deep antiquity human beings received all that was necessary for life from the godly trees. All people were equal. Happiness reigned everywhere. But the trees gradually started giving less and less fruits and humanity was threatened with ruin. At this time, the first Tirthankar Rishabha appeared. Having given laws, knowledge, sword, agriculture, trade, cattle-breeding and ink, he saved the people. He created books on sciences and religions but the language of these books was forgotten. They are, however, retold in various languages. His son ruled in Bharatkshetra i.e. in India (it is not possible to explain from Jain legends, in which territory life of the society was going on up to this time).

It is not difficult to discover in this legend an attempt at original interpretation of the most ancient history of humanity from the stage of primitive community, existing mainly by collectivism, until the period of class relations.

According to Jain notion there are several worlds, situated one above the other. Thus there are two lower worlds, where demons of various categories live. In the lowest world 15 categories of demons live, they subject the souls of sinners to torments. In the following world also, demons and spirits live. The spirits are called 'bhavanpati' and demons are divided in two groups-black (vyantara) and white (vana vyantara). Those who are regarded as spirits and semi-gods in Hinduism (for example, yaksha and gandharava) are also called demons. Also those who are called demons in Hinduism (pishachcha or rakshasa) are designated as demons.

The middle world is situated above the two lower worlds. In this world there is land with all its inhabitants. According to ancient geography of Jainism, the middle world consists of eight wheel-like continents, separated by oceans and in the centre the holy mountain of Meru is situated.

There is also an upper world, where gods and the holies live; this world is near the summit of the mountain Meru.

Above everything, on the very summit of the mountain Meru, the Zenith of the universe-Siddha shila is situated. Here is sparkling eternity, the Siddhas who have liberated their souls lead their lives.

The souls of those peoples, who are nearer to perfection and called devatas live down the summit of mountain Meru, in the heaven-swarga. They serve the Siddhas. Here the Hindu gods-Indra, Shiva, Brahma, Hanuman, Ganesh and others and also Buddha live, they being devatas. It is considered that God Vishnu, after his incarnation as Rama became a Siddha. Hindu gods are usually portrayed in the Jain temples in the form of small figures, standing humble pose before the portrayals of Tirthankars and Siddhas.

Several Hindu deities have found a place as god-patrons or god-protectors of Tirthankars. Most probably the striving of the Jain community to popularise it own religion widely is reflected in their admission of Hindu gods.

The goddess-mother cult made its appearance in Jainism. It was very difficult to accommodate this cult with the teaching of strict ascetism. Buddhism could not overpower the force of this most ancient cult and it found a place in Buddhism in the form of Tantrik Buddhism. In Jainism, another solution was found-the place of goddess-mother was taken by goddess-messengers (shasana devi). Every Tirthankar has his own goddess-messenger, connecting him with the world of the mortals. Goddess Padmavati is thus associated with Parshva, Ambika with Neminath, Chakreshwari with Adinath etc. These deities are referred to in a number of Jain books but their functions are described most fully in the texts of Digambaras, who have secret texts devoted to these deities, wherein their forms, names, symbols, weapons etc., are described.

Jains revere these goddesses and some goddesses of Hindus-Saraswati (goddess of learning), Laxmi (goddess of prosperity) etc. Jains have their own 16 goddesses of knowledge. The Jains also worship caste deities and patron deities of the family.

One can see the images of all these holies and gods in the temples (mainly in those of Shvetambaras, who adopted more elements of Hinduism than Digambaras). Orthodox Jains try to fight against these deviations from the principles of religion but it is not possible to eradicate them, since they have made their appearance in Jainism very long ago.

Images of Tirthankars are worshipped in the temples of both the sects (excluding the subsect of Digambaras-taranapanthi and the subsect of Shvetambaras-sthnakavasi).

Digambaras have simple, unadorned images of nude males, standing upright or sitting on crossed exposed legs, while the Shvetambaras have often images wrapped up in cloth and adorned by jewellery and gold. Usually their eyes are made of precious stones.

Many elements go into the ritual of worship of the images, although it is not obligatory to perform all these every time. Those offering prayers through the medium of the priest of the temple sprinkle water and saffron on the image, place in front of it burning aromatic sticks-agarbatties-say prayer, place near the image flowers, rice, fruits, sweetmeats. Most often the ritual of worship consist in the prayer-doer revolving clockwise round the image three time and saying brief prayer: Namo arhantanam, Namo siddhanam. The morning prayer of the ordinary members of the community is also very short: 'Let the sinful thoughts which visited me last night be forgiven'.

Philanthropy and donations for maintenance of temples are considered great religious services.

Every day the priest of a temple washes the images with milk and on the festival days, by special aromatic composition and adorn them with flowers.

The stanakavasi and taranpanthi subsects have prayer-houses, where their monks live and where their holy books are read.

Jains make pilgrimages to their holy places, where according to their superstition their Tirthankars were born and had secured enlightenment or had died.

The following are the fond places of pilgrimage:

Bihar : (1) City of Parasnath, near which the mountain of Samata is situated. Here according to legend, Parshva and a number of other holies secured Nirvan. On this mountain and round about there are many Jain temples.

(2) City of Papapuri (or Pavapuri) where Mahavir died. This city is situated not far from the capital of the State i.e. Patna. Here on the lake one of the most famous Jain temples is situated.

(3) City of Rajgir. Here, according to legend, 20th Tirthankar was born. There is a rocky mountain near the town on which the Jain ascetics performed penance in the course of many centuries in front of the people, coming to see them.

(4) Bhagalpur, where the 12th Tirthankar was born.

Rajasthan : (1) Mount Abu, on the summit of which the whole town of magnificent temples is situated.

(2) The village of Rakhab-Dev near the city of Udaypur. Here there is an ancient temple of the first Tirthankar-Rishabha. The most interesting feature of local culture is worship of the carved image of Rishabha, made of black marble not only by the Jains but also Vaishnavas (regarding the carved image as incarnation of Vishnu) and Bhils (calling it their own god Kala ji i.e. black god). This is one of the most eloquent confirmations of the assumption about the ancient and initial connections of Jainism with the cult of Vishnu-Krishna and with the pre-Aryan cult.

(3) City of Ranapur on the west of the State, near the city of Jodhpur.

Gujarat : Temples on the mountain of Girnar, where according to legend, the 22nd Tirthankar-Arishtanemi (or Neminath) submerged in Nirvan. The image is carved from black marble.

South Shravanbelgol in the State of Mysore is regarded as the holiest place of pilgrimage. On the mountain of Shravanbelgol, temples of Tirthankars, Parshva and Neminath, built in the tenth-twelfth centuries are situated. The gigantic statue of Gomateshwar, son of Rishabha, carved out of rock is also standing here.

Usually these pilgrimages are connected with festivals and fasts. Jains observe festivals and fasts of their own religious community. They observe many festivals and fasts of the Hindus too.

The following are purely Jain festivals :

1. Jalyatra-ablution in the river of the sacred wheel-siddhachakra-which is taken twice in a year-in spring and in autumn-solemnly to the river and back.

2. Festival of Mahavir Jayanti-The birth anniversary of Mahavir is celebrated on the 13th day of the first half of Chaitra (March-April). Both the Digambaras and Shvetambaras celebrate the birth anniversary.

3. Jina-panchami (by Shvetambaras and Digambaras in October-November) of Shruta-panchami (by Digambaras in May-June) is the festival of holy books, when worship of these books takes place. They are decorated with flowers.

4. Virashasana jayanti (only the Digambaras observe this) the day of the first preaching by Mahavir after securing enlightenment (in July-August).

The following fasts are observed :

1. Paryushana-strict ten days' fast in August-September (by the Digambaras) or eight days' fast (by the Shvetambaras). It is accompanied by prayers, processions and worship of holy books.

2. Ashtanhika-(only by the Digambaras) three times in a year.

3. Fast of four full-moon nights in the year (when Shvetambaras illuminate their temples).

4. Both the sects also observe fasts (which are not very strict) on the 4th, 8th, 12th, days of every month.

From the Hindu festivals Jains observe the following :

1. Divali-the autumn festival of lights which the Jains regard as the day of achievement of Moksha i.e. full liberation, by Mahavir.

2. Rakshabandhan-the day by the end of July, when the sister ties a special lace-amulet on the wrist of brothers. The Jains regard this day as a festival of mutual friendship and amity.

3. Ganesh Chaturthi-day of the god Ganesh (is observed only in Maharashtra and Mysore, where the Hindus celebrate it very solemnly).

4. Anant Chaturdasi-the day of reverence to the great serpent Naga, regarded as a symbol of infinity.

Several other local Hindu festivals are also observed.

Jainism, similar to Hinduism, accepts the idea of religious suicide, but as distinct from Hinduism, Jains always considered that quick methods of suicide are worthless and the people making use of them are reborn as demons. The Jain ascetics choose the method of slow death from hunger and thirst. Moreover, death itself is not their aim. The aim is to renounce all the requirements of the flesh and thus atone for all sins, connected with the flesh.

Only the ascetics are permitted religious suicide. Any other suicide is strictly condemned by Jainism, as violent interruption of the process of liberation of soul from the power of karma.

From : Jainism
By : Mrs. N. R. Guseva
Candidate of Historical Sciences
Senior Scientific Worker of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences, USSR and Jawaharlal Nehru Prize Winner.

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