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By Ms. Susy Mathew Every social grouping in the world has specific traditional and cultural practices and beliefs. Some of them are beneficial to all the members, while others are harmful to a specific group, such as women and female children. The traditional cultural practices reflect values and beliefs held by members of a community for generations. The harmful traditional practices include early marriage, early pregnancy, son preference, female genital mutilation, female infanticide, rape, incest, wife battering. dowry-related violence, trafficking, prostitution and the various taboos and practices which prevent women from exercising her Human Rights. Their harmful nature and their violation of International Human Rights laws, such practices persist because they are not questioned and take an aura of morality in the eyes of those who are practising them. Let us have a look at the harmful traditional practices and their effects on women and girl children. Son Preference It may mean that a female child is disadvantaged from birth; it may determine the quantity and quality of parental care and the extent of investment in her development; and it may lead to acute discrimination, particularly when resources are scarce. Son preference leads to selective abortion or infanticide. In many families lineage is carried by male children, The family name is preserved through the son, the girl child takes her husband's name after marriage. The fear of losing the family name prompts families to wish to have a male child. Sons perform the burial rites of parents. Parents with no male child do not expect to have an appropriate burial 'to secure salvation'. Almost all religious ceremonies are performed by men, Priests and Sheikhs and religious leaders are men of great status to whom society attaches great importance, and this important role for men obliges parents to wish for a male child. Son preference is stronger in countries where patriarchy and patrialiny are more firmly rooted. Sons are a source of family income and have to provide for parents in their old age. Sons are the interpreters of religious teachings and the performers of rituals. A soldier's sons protect the community and hold political power. In Asian region the birth of a son is welcomed with celebration, as an asset, whereas that of a girl is seen as a liability, an impending economic drain. According to an Asian proverb 'bringing up a daughter is like watering the neighbour's garden'. Countless reports the world over have demonstrated that, in societies where son preference is practised, the health of the female child is adversely affected. Amniocentesis tests and sonography for sex determination have resulted in the abortion of female foetuses. The introduction of scientific methods of sex detection have led to a revival of female infanticide and foeticide. In the field of education the drop-out rates continue to be higher among girls than among boys. The reasons for the high drop-out rate among girls are poverty, early marriage, helping parents with house work, illiteracy and indifference of parents, distance of schools from homes. Girls begin school very late and withdraw with the onset of puberty. Parents do not see the benefits of girl's education because girls are given away in marriage to serve the husband's family. A girl child rarely gets rest and recreation. From an early age girls from poor urban homes and rural areas are burdened by domestic tasks and child care. Women's work never ends in such households. Compared with men, women have fewer opportunities for paid employment and less access to skilled training. Women are usually restricted to low-paid and casual jobs. Early Marriage Child marriage robs a girl of her childhood time necessary to develop her physically, emotionally and psychologically. Early marriage inflicts great emotional stress as the young woman is removed from her parents home to that of her husband and in-laws. Discrimination against daughters, particularly in societies with strong son preference, also contribute to early marriage of girls. Health complication that result from early marriage include the risk of operative delivery, low weight and malnutrition resulting from frequent pregnancies and lactation, when the girls themselves are still growing. In certain communities, the low status of girl has to be compensated for by the payment of dowry by the parents of the girl to the husband at the time of marriage. This has resulted in a number of dowry crimes, including mental and physical torture, starvation. Brides are even burnt alive by their husbands in case the dowry demands are not met. The International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in September 1994 encouraged the Government to raise the minimum age for marriage. The special reporteur on Violence Against Women, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, also recognized that early marriage was a factor contributing to the violation of women's Human Rights. Female Infanticide Modern techniques such as amniocentesis and ultrasound tests have given women greater power to detect sex of their babies in time to abort. Illegal abortion, particularly of female fetuses, either self-inflicted or performed by unskilled birth attendants, under poor sanitary conditions has led to increased maternal mortality. Female foeticide is an emerging problem in some parts of India. In India, for example, infanticide was formally legislated against durtng Brttish rule, after centurtes of practice in some communities. However, recent reports have shown that there is a revival. Though misuse of amniocentesis is also prohibited, the problem is still prevalent in India. Early Pregnancy In many parts of the developing world, especially in rural areas, girls marry shortly after puberty and are expected to start having children immediately. Although the situation has improved since the early 1980s, in many areas the majortty of girls under 20 years of age are already marrted and having children. Although many countries have raised the legal age for marrtage, this has had little impact on traditional societies where marrtage and child-beartng confer 'status' on a women. Those who start having children early generally have more children, at short intervals. An additional health risk to young mothers is obstructed labour, which occurs when the babies head is too big for the orifice of the mother. This results in vesicovagional fistulas, esp., when an untrained traditional birth attendant forces the baby's head unduly. Generally throughout the developing world, the average food intake of pregnant and lactating mothers is far below the average male's. Cultural practices, including nutritional taboos, ensure that pregnant women are, deprived of essential nutrients. As a result they suffer from iron and protein deficiencies. Most rural areas through out the developing world have disproportionately fewer health centres and clinics, trained midwives, nurses and doctors than the urban areas. Female Genital Mutilation It is believed that by mutilating the female genital organs, her sexuality will be controlled; but above all it is to ensure a women's virginity before marriage and chastity thereafter. F.G.M. imposes on women untold psychological problems and health complications. The practice of F.G.M. violates the rights of the child to the highest attainable standard of health. F.G.M. is performed on children who are few days old or children who are few years old or on adolescents. Mostly women perform FGM. In Africa the operation is accompanied by celebration. Women excisors who have acquired their 'skills' from their mothers or female relatives carry out the operation. The condition under which these operations take place are often unhygienic and the instruments used are crude and unsterilized. A kitchen knife, a razor blade, a piece of glass or even a sharp finger nail are the tools of the trade. These instruments are repeatedly used on numerous girls, thus increasing the risk of blood transmitted diseases, including HIV / AIDS. In most cases anaesthetic is not administered. The child is held by three or four women while the operation is done. The wound is then treated by applying mixtures of local herbs, earth, cow-dung ash or butter, depending on the skills of the excisor. If the child dies of complications, the excisor is not held responsible; rather the death is attributed to evil spirits or fate. FGM is a custom or tradition synthesized over time from various values, especially religious and cultural values. The reasons for maintaining the practice include religion, custom decreasing the sexual desire of women etc. The effects of FGM have short-term and long term implications. Haemorrhage, infection and acute pain are the immediate consequences. Infertility as a result of infection, obstructed labour and psychological complications are identified as later effects. Mood swings and irritability, constant state of depression, and anxiety have all been noted among the girl children. The fundamental Human Rights of half of human society is i.e. women continue to be denied and violated. However, the bleak reality is that these traditional practices are done for male benefit. Female sexual control by men and economic and political subordination of women perpetuate the inferior status of women and inhibit structural and attitudinal changes necessary to eliminate gender inequality. Violence against women is a global phenomenon which cuts across geographical, cultural and political boundaries. It takes overt or convert forms including physical mental and psychological abuse. These are not only moral issues, but Human Rights violation and expression of gender subordination of women. A number of reasons are given for the persistence of such traditional practices detrimental to the health and status of women. These harmful practices are considered sensitive cultural issues. For a long time the Government and International Community have not shown sympathy towards women who due to their ignorance and unawareness of their rights have endured pain, suffering and even death inflicted on them and their female children. Violence against women persists in an environment where women and the girl child have unequal access to education wealth, health and employment. Blind adherence to traditional practices and State's inaction with regard to these customs are reasons for large-scale violence against women. It is heartening to know that the traditional practices have become a recognised issue concerning the status and Human Rights of women and female children. The slogan 'Women's Rights are Human Rights' adopted at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993 as well as Declaration on Elimination of Violence against women adopted by the General Assembly, the same year, captured the reality of the status accorded to women. RECOMMENDATIONS
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