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Jainism

 

By Mr. T. N. Jain

 

Introduction : India is known for her unity in diversity – may it be social, cultural or religious systems. While Aryans and Dravidas were geographically divided the ancient caste system was the byproduct of various socio-economic factors of the time. The ancient Varna system (cast system of hindus) paved the way for a large number of its offshoots.

The oswal community traces its origin in the ancient ksatriyas and partly in rajput, vaisyas and other caste. The existences of Oswals as a clan, is identified with Jainism, a religious sect of Hinduism, oswal and Jainism, are so intertwined with each other historically, through philosophy of life, religious beliefs and social structure that one can not imagine an Oswal without being a Jain first. In fact Oswal community is the cultural embodiment of Jainism. It would be appropriate to say that Oswal community is the laboratory of testing the principles of Jainism.

Thus to gain knowledge of origin and history of Oswal clan, study of Jainism Is a pre-requisite.

Jainism : Jainism basically is an ethical discipline, and roots of Jainism are found in the pre-Aryan culture. These ethical principles, as well as the metaphysical thoughts of this discipline are found in the Ancient scriptures. And it is now beyond any doubt that Jainism, as a way of living, existed long before Bhagwan Parsvanath and Vardhman-Mahaveera, the last two tirthankeras (teachers/prophets). However, it was known variously on the basis of its principles as Arhat-dharma and Mahajan-dharms etc, before the last tirthankera Mahavira, where after it came to be known as Jain Dharma (Jainism). The discipline belongs to sramana (monks/saints) current of thought. Sramanas are messengers of the teachings & thoughts of their masters and convey the same to the mankind. Tirthankera is a human being who rises, through his own efforts, to the state of spiritual perfection. It is equivalent to Avatar (incarnation of God) in ancient Hindu scriptures. He is Jina, one who has conquered the passions; a perfected soul who preaches Dharma. Jina possess Kevala-jnana (perfect knowledge) and knows how to cross the ocean of life and Death, the tirtha. The social and spiritual order of Jainism, which consists of Sramana (monk), sramani (nuns),Sravaka and sravika (men and women followers), is also referred by Tirtha. Jina leads these four orders of the society towards the path of spritual perfection. These are the concept of tirthankeras.

Historically, Jainism can be Studied Under Three Phases of its Development :
1. Pre-Mahavira Era
2. Mahavira Era
3. Post-Mahavira Era

Pre-Mahavir Era : Antiquity of Jainism is now an established fact. Jain traditions and other evidences show that Jainism as a religion was not founded by Vardhman-Mahavira. He was only the last of 24 tirthankeras. While the first twenty one tirthankeras belong to pre-historic age and the last three prophets of Jainism have their place in the history. Advent of Rishabhadeva, as first tirthankera is supported by Hindu mythological character Rishabha-Avtar. According to Dr. Radha Kumud Mukerjee, the great historian of India, icons and relics of Indus valley civilization Reveal the existence of Jina dharma. Study of Rigveda, Shivpurana, Matsyapurana, Srimad Bhagwata, Devi Bhagwata and Taittiriya Aranyak reveal the Jainism having existed and preached by sramans (Muni). Epigraphically studies of Harappa and Mohanjodaro (Indus Valley) reveal that engraved seated deities on some Indus seals or in yoga posture bear witness to the prevalence of Yoga in that age. Regarding the statues in standing posture Depicting kayotsarga (Physical abandon), ithas been opined to be peculiarly Jaina.

Rishabhdeva - The First Tirthankara : All these scriptures and relics make references to Rishabhadeva or Vrishabhadeva, the first prophet (tirthankara) of Jainism. Myth goes that Rishabhadeva was the son of Nabhiraja in the line-age of Swayambhuva Muni, the Adimuni (Adam of western thinkers). Vedic scripture Srimad Bhagavata supports this lineage. Righveda and.

Mahapurana mentions Hiranyagarbha, who was full of splendor. Jaina chronicle literature maintains that Hiranyagarbha was, Rishabhadeva himself, (Rigveda 2-33-15), because he had the strength of a bull.

Rishabhadeva was son of Marudevi and Nabhiraja, the first kastriya chief, according to Acharya Hemchandra’s Abhidhana Chintamani. It is said that Marudevi dreamt 14 auspicious dreams heralding the birth of their son as a prophet. This resplendent son was born on the Chaitra Krishna Astami. He was so beautiful, strong, and resplendent that he was known as Visvakarma, Vidhata and Prajapati also. However, Bhagwat Purana mentions that the child was called Rishabha because he was full of splen’dour and strength like the bull. These scriptures also depict that Rishbha was married to two beautiful girls Kaccha and Mahakaccha.

Nabhiraja, as a Kulankara (chief), organized the people into polity and Rishabha was coroneted as the first king (Raja) with political authority. His was the first kingdom of the human society, and he was the first king installed at the request of people. He built a powerful welfare state comprising of 52 Janapadas, the state capital being Vinitanagari (Ayodhya). Rishbha was the first king to introduce the punitive law and appoint army for discipline and defense. To manage the affairs of the nation he appointed police, army, and magistrates and developed a system to subject the criminals to punishment. Rishbha, the king, himself was a man with extensive knowledge and was keen to educate his people. He made 72 arts for men and 64 arts for women part of his educational system. Agriculture and art of defense with the use of arms was taught to his subjects. Arts and literature flourished during his period. First alphabet was invented as art of communication and was termed as Brahmilipi in the name of his elder daughter Brahami. His eldest son Bharata ruled the areas from Himalaya to the vast seas in the south, which came to be known as Bharatvarsha according to Vasudeva Hindi.

Rishbhadeva’s was the period of Karma (activity) and Dharma (righteousness). He, for the first time, realized the growth of inequality and disparity in the social system and classified his subjects into three Varnas (castes) based on capabilities and performances of people viz Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. Those who were of arms and the art of warfare were termed Ksatryas. Those who had expertise in agriculture and trading were called Vaisyas. Unskilled workers were named Sudras. This system was in no way to suggest upper class or lower class in the society. All classes were equal to each other. Later, Rishabhadeva’s son Bharat introduced, Chatur varna (Fourth cast), Brahmins were separated as another functional social group of the society, maintains the Jaina Literature.

The king Rishabha was however not meant only for worldly things. He had a clairvoyant knowledge of the things and had always strived for spiritual perfection of man. World seemed to him meaningless. After having established the kingdom he decided to renounce the family. He handed over his kingdom to his eldest son Bharat and took to renunciation. As a sramana he started an ascetic life and wandered place to place. He practiced penance and meditation for a long time. He possessed Kevala-jnana (perfect knowledge) during deep meditation under a Banyan tree on 11th day of Phalguna Krishna paksha. He became now the Jina (conqueror of passions or woes of existence).

Rishabhadeva was a Nirgrantha sramana. He decided to lead the humanity towards spritual path and started giving pravachanas (Sermons). His sermons were based on Ahimsha (Non-violence) and Aparigraha (Non-possession). Rishabhadeve’s teachings included Lokniti, Rajniti, as well as Dharmaniti (rights and duties of people, rulers and religious leaders). He taught to his disciples that the universe is neither created nor destroyed. It is eternal. It is constituted of the ultimate particles of matter (atoms), and the constitution of atoms in various forms constitutes the paryayas (modes). His philosophy of life was: “so much in this world is meaningless; it is fleeting and ephemeral as compared to the relation of eternal self. Pleasures of the senses are monetary and desires are insatiable. The eternal bliss lies in the realization of the true nature of the self”.

Tirthankera Rishabhadeva also taught the metaphysical and ethical principles. The seven fundamental principles (tattvas) are Jiva (living beings), Ajiva (non-living), Asrava (the influx of deeds), Bandh (the bondage), Samvara (the stoppage of the influx of deeds), Nirjara (the removal of accumulated deeds), and the final, the moksa. The theory of six substances (dravya) consists of Jiva, (Living being), Pudgala (Matter), Dharma (Medium of motion), Adharma (Medium of rest), Aakasa (Space) and Kaal (time). Srimad Bhagwata mentions him as Avtara (Incarnation of God). In fact Rishabhadeva as a ruler created a culture of ruling and as sramana provided a framework of ‘dos and donts’ to the ancient Muni system. Ancient Vedic literature as well as Jain Canonical literature terms Rishabhadeva, as Bhagwan, Adinath, and Aditirthankera because of teachings to the mankind to overcome the woes of life. Bhagwan Rishabhadeva was the torchbearer of the humanity enlightening their souls by asking them to take a vow for Ahimsa i.e. to refrain from injuring any living being and Apargrahs i.e. to refrain from possessing property.

According to the Jamboodveep Pragyoti Sutra, the followers of his teaching included eighty-four Ganadharas, twenty thousand Kevali-Sadhus, four thousand Kevli-Sadhvis, eighty four thousand sadhus, three hundred thousand sadhvis and almost nine hundred thousand sravak and sravikas.

Bhagwan Rishabhadeva preached the eternal religion of Ahimsa and Aparigraha for a long period. Jain canonical literature only describes the mythological calculations of his living and Nirvana (death). According to a myth Bhagwan Rishabha went to Aasthapada Mountain with the thousands of his disciples. In Abhijit Naksatra he sat for meditation and reached the highest stage of Nirvana. The day was Shivratri, which is observed as Jinaratri by followers of Jainism.

Thus, this period, the period of the Adi Tirthankara Rishabhdeva, laid the foundation of Jainism by preaching the religion of Ahimsa and Aparigraha. To this were added other vows with the passage of time.

Other Tirthankara of The Era : After Rishabhadeva the Jain scriptures mention a series of tirthankeras of Jinas (the conquerors of the woes of existence). However these tirthankaras provided only continuity to the thoughts of Aditirthankara Rishabhadeva and elaborated his teachings and principles. These tirthankaras preached Jaina religion from time to time according to the needs of people and interpreted the basic principles and ideology in the context of the time and circumstances.

Moreover, Jain canonical literature does not provide chronological account of their lives and times, nor does it mention their special teachings as of Aditirthankara Rishabhadeva. While first twenty tirthankaras purely belong to pre-historic era, and form the part of Jaina mythology, the last three have their place in the history.

The order of the Jaina Tirthankara is as Under :
1. Shri Rishabhadeva
2. Shri Ajitnath
3. Shri Sambhavnath
4. Shri Abhinandan
5. Shri Sumatinath
6. Shri Padmaprabhu
7. Shri Suparasvanath
8. Shri Chandrapraprabhu
9. Shri Suvidhinath
10. Shri Sheetalnath
11. Shri Shreyansanath
12. Shri Vasupujaya
13. Shri Vimalnath
14. Shri Anantanath
15. Shri Dharmnath
16. Shri Shantinath
17. Shri Kunhunath
18. Shri Aarnath
19. Shri Malinath
20. Shri Munisuvritnath
21. Shri Neminath
22. Shri Aristhneminath
23. Shri Parasavanat
24. Shri Mahavira.

The period of these tirthankaras can be said to be the period of substantiation and ratification of the principles of Jainism enunciated by Bhagwan Rishabhadeva. During this period the number of followers grew. It needs a mention that twentieth tirthankera; Muni Suvrita Swami was the contemporary of Bhagwan Rama of Ramanaya. Thus the next tirthankara Neminath’s period can well be placed between the period of Ramayana and Mahabharata, the pro-historic period of the mankind. This leads us to note some details of the twenty-second tirthankara Shri Aristhaneminath who has his footprints on history with convincing evidence. As will be noted later, he was cousin of Lord Krishna, the Hindu deity and the preacher of Srimad Bhagwad Gita.

Shri Arishtnemi 22nd Tirthankara : The lineage of the 22nd tirthankara Shri Aristanemi is traced in history to the clan of Maharaja Vasu, the founder of Yodu Vansha, from Hindu scriptures and other religious literature. There are references to Aristanemiin Rigveda at many places. Yajurveda and samveda also mentions Aristanemi. Mahabharat give description of the teaching of Moksa Marg by Aristanemi to Sagar, the king. Scholars are also of the opinion that Ghora Angirasa Risi in Chandogya-Upanishada was Aristanemi who preached the path to the realization of self to Lord Krishana consisting of asceticism, charity, non-violence, and truth speaking. And these were the founding principles of Jainism. Historical research of Dr. Radha Krishna, Dr. P.N. Vidhyalankar, Col. Todd, Dr. Harrison, Prof. Warnett etc., have accepted Aristanemi as a man of history.

As said earlier, Aristanemi belonged to Yadav clan. Harivanshpurana gives the lineage of Yadavas, which shows that Hindu deity Lord Krishna and tirthanakara Aristanemi were cousins. King Samudra Vijaya, father of Shri Aristanemi was the ruler of Sauripura (near Mathura), and was the eldest son of his father Andhaka Vrisni. Bhagwan Krishna’s father Vasudeva was the youngest of the ten sons of Andhaka Vrishi, and was youngest brother of Samudravijaya. AndhakaVrishi became a Jain Sramana after renunciation.

Shri Aristanemi was born to king Samudravijaya and queen Shivadevi. They had four sons. Aristanemi, the eldest, was born on Shravana Sheila Panchami. By this time Bhagwan Krishna had born to Devaki and Vasudeva, the youngest brother of Samudravijaya. The royal family enjoyed a trouble free life since the child came into the womb of his mother. Hence he was named Aristanemi. He was handsome and cheerful but dark in complexion like his cousin Shri Krishna, according to Jaina belief.

Shri Aristanemi renounced the world just before his marriage. Uttarapurana and Harivanshpurana give a description of his marriage programme and renunciation just before the marriage. After renunciation Shri Aristanemi practiced penance and remained for 54 days in meditation to attain enlightenment. Tirthankara Aristanemi now moved from place to place and preached the religionof Ahimsa and Aparigraha. Jaina cononical literature also preached his cousin Shri Krishna and his queens. He established the four orders, the Tirtha, consisting of Sramana, Sramani, Sravaka, and Sravika.

During the last phase of life in this world tirthankara Aristanemi decided to go Mount Girnar in Saurashtra. He attained Nirvana there on Asadh Shukla Asthami.

Shri Parshvanath 23rd Tirthankara : The twenty third tirthankara Lord Parsvanath was a historical figure, who was known to have his existence 250 years before Bhagwan Mahavira, the last tirthankara. According to Jaina belief Bhagwan Parsvanath was born 278 years earlier to Shri Mahavira. The descent of Mahavira is in the year 599 B.C. Thus historically the birth of Shri Parsvanath dates to 877 B.C.

According to Jaina literature Bhagwan Parsvanath earned himself the ability of being a tirthankara in his eighth life cycle when he was Swarnabahu, a mythical hero. Swarnabahu’s soul descended in the royal family of Varanasi and took birth as a child to Maharaja Ashwasen and Maharani Vama in Vishakha Nakshatra on the 4th day of Chaitra Krishna Paksha. Uttarpurana and Mahapurana names them Vishvasen and Brahami, respectively. 

There is a difference of opinion about the Gotra of Parsvanath. Devgupta Suri in his “Parsvanath Charita” depicts his Ikshwaku-vansha while according to Mahapurana (94-4-23) Parsvanath was f4rom Ugravansha. Digambara sect of Jainism recognise him as Ugravanshi while Svetambera believe him to be Ikshwaku, following the genealogy of Rishabhadeva, the first tirthankara. 

However, historically his existence is beyond doubt. He was brought up amid luxury, but he was never attracted to materialistic world. Having lead family life for thirty years he was not attracted to Kaam Bhog (sexual life). He left home at the age of thirty and after three months of intense meditation and penance he attained Kevala-jnana on Chaitra Krishna Chaturthi. He spent the remaining life as a religious teacher. For about 70 years Parsvanath spread the message of Jainism.

Parsvanath followed, the path of Ahimsa and respect for truth (Dharma) so vigorously that these became the social values of the time. People worshipped him as Bhagwan (God). Jainism counts on five types of Sramanas: Nirgrantha, Shakya, Tapas, Rauruk and Aajiwak. Parsvanath lead the Nirgrantha sect. Even some modern Historians recognise him as founder of the Nirgrantha sect.

Bhagwan Parsvanath introduced Chaturyam Dharma (four vows) for the disciples and followers :
(1) Ahimsa (non-violence)
(2) Satyavachan (abstenance from telling lies)
(3) Achaurya-Tyag (abstenance from stealing or taking what is not given)
(4) Aparigraha (non-possession of property).

To these, later, Vardhman Mahavira added fifth vow (Brahamcharya), viz. Sanyama i.e. to observe chastity.

According to ‘Parsvanath Charita there were 10 Ganas of Lord Parsvanath and the following were the Gandharas : (1). Shubhdutt (2). Arya Ghosh, (3) Vashstha, (4). Arya Brahma, (5).Arya Som, 6. Arya sreedhara, (7). Varisena, (8). Bhadra Yasha, (9). Arya Jai, (10). Arya Vijai.

Lord Parsvanath had a long following of his disciples. Bhagwan Parsvanath's teachings and preachings were warmly and respectfully received by people. His preachings even attracted various Rishis viz. Pippalad, Bharadwaja, Nachiketa etc. His tender, sweet and peaceful voice had a great effect on Kings too. Kings of Kalinga, Panchal, Vidharbha and Gaandhaar were his contemporaries and were impressed by his preachings. Even Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, too seems to have an impact of his teachings. In fact Parsvanath made the practice of Ahimsa and truthfulness a social phenomenon with his preachings. His omni benevolence made him a great religious hero of the time. After preaching his doctrines during his visits from place to place for about seven decades centurion Bhagwan Parsvanath reached to Sammeta mountain (in West Bengal (now known as Sammeta Sikharji,a Jaina Tirtha), along with his disciples. Here he took the vow of fasting with meditation for the rest of his life. He attained Nirvana on the auspicious day of Sravan Shukla Asthami in Vishakha Nakshatra in the year 777 B.C. according to chronology.

Mahavir Era : Although the pre-historic era of Jaina faith, according twosome early historians was reckoned upto 23rd tirthankara Parsvanath, modern researches attribute the last two tirthankara as ShriAristhanemi and Parasvanath of pre-Mahavira era to the dawn of history. These two were historical figures is now beyond any doubt.

The period up to Parsvanath, the 23rd tirthankara is counted as the period of origination, formation and propagation of principles of Jainism. During this period Jainism had to undergo various conceptual conflicts as well as differences of opinion in the actual practices of its principles. On the one hand Jainism expanded at the time of Aristhanemi and Parsvanatha, while on the other, other faiths got established and carried away people to a confused state of ‘to be or not to be’. Gautam Buddha had already founded Buddhism. It is claimed that it was based on principles and practices of Jainism.

At this stage, after qbout 250 years of the death of Parsvanath, Vardhman Mahavira flourished and rejuvenated the principles and practices of Jaina dharma. So much so that he is even referred to as founder of Jainism. As a matter of fact only at this stage the followers of Rishabhadeva, Aristanemi and Parsvanath’s doctrines were termed as Jains, and the faith as Jainism.

Mahavira was a junior contemporary of Gautam Buddha. His advent or the scene started a religious and spiritual revolution in Jainism. A new era of Jainism was emerging with him, which continued till the time of Shrutakevali Bhadrabahu. There after Jainism was divided into two sects: Svetembara and Digambara.

Vardhman Mahavir 24th Tirthankara : Both the sects of Jainism, Svetambara and Digambara concede that Mahavira was son of Raja (chieftain) siddartha of Kundpura or Kundgram in the outskirts of Vaishali. Siddhartha was a ksatriya of khata lineage. Hence Mahavira was also known as Khataputra or Nathaputra. Sutrakritang terms Mahavira as Vaishalik. His mother Trisala was the eldest daughter of king Chetaka of vaishali according to Digambaras. However, Svetambara sect maintains that Trisala was sister of king Chetaka. She was also known as Priyakarni. Whatsoever Mahavira has a wide impact of her mother’s lineage instead of paternal relations? All other daughters of king Chetaka were married to royal families of Magadha, Avanti, Videha, Anga etc. and Mahavira naturally had close relations with these royal houses. King chetaka was also the chief of Licchhavis Republic, a powerful kingdom of the time. Because of these maternal relationships all these kings had, later, followed Mahavira and became his disciples.

However, Vardhaman Mahavira is identifiable on strong grounds with Nirgrantha Natta-putta ( Nirgrantha of the Jhatrika clan ) of Buddhist Pittakas. He was born on Chaitra Sudhi Trayodasi (13th day of lunar fortnight of Chaitra month) in 599 B.C. (some historians date his birth in 540 B.C.). According to a myth, one heavenly deity transplanted Mahavira from the womb of a Brahmini Devananda to the womb of Trisala, the mother of Mahavira. Mahavira himself says in Bhagawatisutra that Devananda was his mother. However, Dr. Yakob, in the ‘Sacred Books of the East’ maintains that possibly king Siddhartha had two wives viz. Devananda, a Brahmin and Trisala, a Ksatriya. It is very likely that Mahavira was born to Devananda and was better known through Trisala of royal lineage. The birth of the son was celebrated in the kingdom with joy. He was named Vardhaman because with the coming into the womb of his mother the prosperity of the kingdom escalated.

Vardhman, as a boy was charming, brave and free from any tears. He was called Mahavira for his physical strength. There are a number of anecdotes from the life of Mahavira, which establish his physical as well as mental capabilities. He was also called Sanmati (possessing conceptual clarity). Two ascetics of Parsva tradition once had some doubt about the theory of rebirth. But, it is said, after meeting boy Mahavira, their doubts were gone.

Jainism is again divided on the married life of Mahavira. Digambara tradition does not accept the view that Mahavira was married and asserts that he took to renunciation in his bachelorhood with the permission of his parents. On the contrary, Svetambara tradition literature maintains that Vardhman was married to Yasoda or Yashodhara and had a daughter Priyadarsana who was married to Jamali. Yet there is evidence to show that Mahavira, like tirthankaras Mallinath, Vasupujaya, Parsvanath and Aristhnemi, did not marry and took Pravrajya (renunciation) in their Kumarawastha (bachelorhood). (Avashyak Niryukti, 243-244).

At the age of thirty, Vardhaman Mahavira, who was extremely detached to his secular life and was craving for spritual life, took to renunciation, on the 10th day of dark fortnight of Margashirsha. He possessed every thing to enjoy life but all these appeared him to be prosy, fugitive and meaningless. His intellectual sharpness was craving for perfection and rising to a spritual and transcendental being.

After having taken pravrajiya (sanyasa) Mahavira had only one small piece of cloth presented by Indra (The king of Gods) on his body and remained as such (cheevardhari) for about thirteen months. After this he moved naked for the rest of the life. He gave the only garment to a poor Brahmin.

During this period of more then twelve years Mahavira practiced severe penance and regular meditation. Literature of Jainism is full of stories and anecodotes depicting his forgiveness, kindness and love for living beings, and wisdom. Jaina puranas also give graphic description of the days of his Sadhana and the horrifying experiences. Mahavira had to undergo, while wandering place to place in quest of truth and enlightenment. He observed complete silence (maun-vrata) during this period of penance. Only during rainy days when a Jain Sadhak is in Varsavas or Chaturmasa and stays at one place, he used to give discourse, according to Svetambers. In the course of his wandering at the age of 42, Vardhaman reached to a village near Rajgiri. He sat there on a sila under a tree on the bank of river Rjukula. His severe penance and meditation bore fruits on Vaiusakha Shukla Dasmi (10th day of brighter half of Vaisakha month). He attained the highest state of omniscience and the state of ananta-jnana (infinite knowledge), ananta-virya (infinite energy) and ananta-sukh (infinite bliss).

Sramana Mahavira now was Bhagwan Mahavira. For another 66 days he observed silence and did not give Pravachana (sermons) nor did he preach religion. His first Pravachana was given at Mt. Vipulgiri. From here onwards Bhagwan Mahavira presented the essence of Jainism in the fundamental principles of Ahimsa (non-violence), Aparigraha (non possession) and Anekanta (non-one- sidedness) till the age of 72wandering through the country. In the last lap of his journey, Bhagwan Mahavira reached to Pava in Bihar. Last samvasarana was arranged, which was witnessed by a large number of rulers or various countries. On seventh night, when the Pravachana was in progress, Bhagwan Mahavira was deeply engrossed in meditation of highest order, called Shukla-dhyan. This was Kartika Amavasya of 527 B. C. Bhagwan Mahavira attained the state of Nirvana in the last phase of the night in swati Nakshtra, according to Svetambara belief. Digambera sect, however, dates the Nirvana as Kartika Krishna Chaturdasi.

Teachings of Bhagwan Mahavira : Mahavira Swami was a junior contemporary of Gautam Buddha, as noted earlier. By the time sramana Mahavira started preaching. Buddhism had already taken over adopting the basic principles of Jainism. Buddhism too had recognized the fact that world is full of sorrow, and the salvation of a man means his deliverance from the eternal chain of birth and death. Bhagwan Mahavira having observed the impact of Buddhism, had tried to rejuvenate the principles of Jainism. He had accepted mainly the religious doctrines of last tirthankera Parsvanath, but reformed them by some additions, alterations and interpretations.

 

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